The history of elections in Ghana, Kenya and Uganda. What We Can Learn from These ‘National Exercises’

A large literature has described the years after independence from colonial rule as a period of ‘departicipation’. Africa’s new rulers – whether driven by personal venality or sincere commitment to nation-building swiftly gave up on elections, at best held elections that, denying choice, left violence central dynamic African politics. This article draws cases Kenya, Ghana and Uganda in late 1960s argue that emphasis often placed ‘speed ease’ this process been overstated. Instead, politicians civil servants valued means educate discipline public, even they feared their possible outcomes. Building focuses individual experience rather than presence absence parties, we rhetoric shows saw ‘exercises’ revealing term would train test citizens. Yet is not whole story: voters understood participation own terms played role how early experiments with out. The political closures these were real, but course was unplanned contingent, shaped partly popular involvement. These points are only historical value, also provide important insights into extent which contemporary instruments elite power drivers democratisation.